Chenopodium Sp. - Goosefoot

Practical ecological knowledge for the temperate reader.

Chenopodium Sp. - Goosefoot

"The name Chenopodium is derived from the Greek words chenos (goose) and podos (foot), because the leaves often resemble goose feet. This genus consists of ca. 120 species, widely distributed over the world, 45 of which have been described in India." ^{[Bajaj MAPS 10]}

"Habit: Annual or perennial herb, glabrous or powdery. Stem: branches 0 to generally erect (spreading). Leaf: generally petioled; blade linear to deltate or diamond-shaped, entire to lobed or toothed, reduced distally on stem; proximal leaves generally early-deciduous. Inflorescence: spheric clusters or flower 1, in spikes, or panicle-like, generally dense; bracts generally 0; flowers generally sessile. Flower: sepals generally 5, fused or not, persistent, flat to keeled; stamens generally 5; stigmas 2(5). Fruit: enclosed or subtended by calyx; fruit wall membranous or papery, free or attached to seed and generally loosening in age. Seed: vertical or horizontal, lenticular to +- spheric, red-brown to black; wall thin. Species In Genus: +- 100 species: temperate; some cultivated for food or grain. Etymology: (Greek: goose foot, from leaf shape of some species) Note: Fruit generally required for identification. Other species in TJM (1993) now treated in Dysphania.
Unabridged Note: Powder on plants from small, inflated hairs." ^[Jepson]

Local Species;

Chenopodium album - lamb's-quarters ^[E-flora]
Chenopodium berlandieri - pitseed goosefoot ^[E-flora]
Chenopodium capitatum - strawberry-blite ^[E-flora]
Chenopodium ficifolium - figleaf goosefoot ^[E-flora]
Chenopodium rubrum - red goosefoot ^[E-flora]
Chenopodium simplex - maple-leaved goosefoot ^[E-flora]

References

[Jepson] Steven E. Clemants & Nuri Benet-Pierce 2012, Chenopodium album, in Jepson Flora Project (eds.) Jepson eFlora, https://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/eflora/eflora_display.php?tid=19131, accessed on April 01, 2021.

Chenopodium album - lamb's-quarters

Family: Amaranthaceae - Amaranth ^[E-flora]

Subtaxa Present in B.C

Chenopodium album ssp. album ^[E-flora]
Chenopodium album ssp. striatum ^[E-flora]

"Chenopodium album is a ANNUAL growing to 0.9 m (3ft) by 0.2 m (0ft 8in). It is not frost tender. It is in flower from July to October, and the seeds ripen from August to October. The species is hermaphrodite (has both male and female organs) and is pollinated by Wind. Suitable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils and can grow in very acid and very alkaline soils. It cannot grow in the shade. It prefers moist soil." ^[PFAF]

"General: Annual herb from a taproot; stems erect, solitary, branched, 0.2-1.0 m tall, greenish to greyish-mealy, often reddish-tinged with age." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}

"Leaves: Stem leaves alternate, somewhat succulent, broadly lanceolate, deltoid, egg-shaped or diamond-shaped, 3-10 cm long, shallowly to prominently toothed or lobed, sparsely to densely mealy." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}

Notes: "The two subspecies recognized by Tutin (1964) for C. album appear to be present in our flora. They may be distinguished as follows:" ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}

"1. Leaves lanceolate, egg-shaped or diamond-shaped, often abruptly sharp-pointed, margins not always parallel; stems green or red................ ssp. Album" ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
"1. Leaves oblong, obtuse, margins more or less parallel; stems often red striped.......................ssp. striatum (Krasan) J. Murr in Urban & Graebn." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}

"Habitat / Range Mesic to dry fields, waste places and gardens in the lowland, steppe and montane zones; common throughout BC except the Queen Charlotte Islands and adjacent coast; introduced from Eurasia." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}

Status: Exotic ^[E-flora]

Hazards

"The leaves and seeds of all members of this genus are more or less edible. However, many of the species in this genus contain saponins, though usually in quantities too small to do any harm. Although toxic, saponins are poorly absorbed by the body and most pass straight through without any problem. They are also broken down to a large extent in the cooking process. Saponins are found in many foods, such as some beans. Saponins are much more toxic to some creatures, such as fish, and hunting tribes have traditionally put large quantities of them in streams, lakes etc in order to stupefy or kill the fish[K]. The plants also contain some oxalic acid, which in large quantities can lock up some of the nutrients in the food, but these plants are very nutritious vegetables in reasonable quantities. Cooking the plant will reduce its content of oxalic acid. People with a tendency to rheumatism, arthritis, gout, kidney stones or hyperacidity should take especial caution if including this plant in their diet since it can aggravate their condition[238]. There is also a report that very large quantities of the leaves have caused photosensitivity in some people[74]. Only the raw leaves can cause problems, and then only if large quantities are consumed[172]. A further report says that if the plant is grown in soils that contain too much nitrates then the plant can concentrate these substances in the leaves. Nitrates have been shown to cause many health problems including stomach cancers and blue-baby syndrome. In nitrogen-rich soils, the plants can also concentrate hydrogen cyanide[218]. In small quantities, hydrogen cyanide has been shown to stimulate respiration and improve digestion, it is also claimed to be of benefit in the treatment of cancer. In excess, however, it can cause respiratory failure and even death." ^[PFAF]

"In Hungary, it seems that a fairly large amount of the powdered herb mixed with food has been shown to suppress the oestrous cycle (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk). In other words it may act as an oral contraceptive." ^{[DPL Watts]}

"When mature, the leaves contain higher levels of sodium and oxalic acid (linked to kidney stones). You should be cautious with this plant if you have a history of issues with kidney stones." ^{[Jones TDFB]}

Edible Uses

Plant
- "The whole plant can be eaten during most of its growing life. The young leaves are fresh and green tasting in a salad, and the larger leaves can be cooked like spinach. The flower tops can be cooked and eaten as a vegetable."^{[Jones TDFB]}
- "Even in India, it was only eaten as a marginal food (Gammie), though American Indians such as the Hopi made good use of the leaves and seeds (Hough)." ^{[DPL Watts]} "... the leaves and seeds are used extensively in Indian cuisine (where it is called bathua)." ^{[Jones TDFB]}
Leaves
- "Leaves - raw or cooked[2, 4, 5, 9, 12, 20, 54, 62, 102]. A very acceptable spinach substitute[183], the taste is a little bland but this can be improved by adding a few stronger-flavoured leaves[9]. One report says that, when eaten with beans, the leaves will act as a carminative to prevent wind and bloating[257]. The leaves are best not eaten raw, see the notes above on toxicity[74]. The leaves are generally very nutritious but very large quantities can disturb the nervous system and cause gastric pain[74]. The leaves contain about 3.9% protein, 0.76% fat, 8.93% carbohydrate, 3% ash[179]. A zero moisture basis analysis is also available[218]." ^[PFAF] "Young leaves are cooked in diluted milk as vegetable." ^{[Abbasi WEVLH]}
- The young leaves and shoots of Chenopodium album, ... and many others are used as vegetable and salad in many parts of India and other countries. ^{[Dagar ASI]} "young shoots and leaves used to be the most important wild green of eastern Europe; also eaten in E Asia. Ingredient of “pistic” and “preboggion” blend." ^[ETWP]
- "When small, six to ten inches high, the plants are succulent and tender, and in that stage are very desirable as a potherb. Many of the Indian tribes of the Southwest gather and cook it as a spinach." ^[EWP]
- "In the Ukraine, the name “green borsh” designates any soup made of green vegetables, e.g., Rumex acetosa, Chenopodium album and Urtica dioica, which indicates that in the past mixed soups of many species of wild vegetables could have been more common everywhere. The above-mentioned wild plants are still occasionally sold in Ukrainian markets (information from a few Ukrainian botanists). In some parts ofUkraine (e.g., in theUman area) the use of Aegopodium podagraria for green borsh also still occurs (Kuzemko, 2008)." ^[ETWP]
- "Used as greens when it first comes out, cooked with beef or any meat in soup." ^{[HuronSmith Winnebago]}
Seeds
- "This plant has received much attention due to its high protein content in seeds and has been selected for commercial production (Weber 1978)." ^{[Bajaj MAPS 10]}
- "Edible seed - dried and ground into a meal and eaten raw or baked into a bread[[2, 4, 12, 14, 54, 102, 183]. The seed can also be sprouted and added to salads[183]. The seed is very fiddly to harvest and use due to its small size[9]. Although it is rather small, we have found the seed very easy to harvest and simple enough to utilize[K]. The seed should be soaked in water overnight and thoroughly rinsed before being used in order to remove any saponins. The seed contains about 49% carbohydrate, 16% protein, 7% ash, 5.88% ash[114, 179]." ^[PFAF]
- "They also gather the seeds, grind them into meal which is baked in cakes or used in gruel." ^[EWP] "Parched seeds along with molasses/jaggery are fed to the children" ^{[Gupta HTNH]}
- "Lapphi is cooked by using chenopodium seed, molasses and water. The ingredients are boiled in water and the soup so prepared is served hot along with meals. It is rich source of carbohydrates and proteins; however, the over consumption results in dysentery." ^{[Gupta HTNH]}
- "Soak the seeds before cooking to remove a little of the bitterness." ^{[Jones TDFB]}
Inflorescence
- "Young inflorescences - cooked[183]. A tasty broccoli substitute[K]." ^[PFAF] Young inflorescences are cooked ^[EMNMPV.7]

Other Uses

Dye
- "A green dye is obtained from the young shoots[99]." ^[PFAF]
Fodder: Aerial parts used as fodder for cattle. ^{[Abbasi WEVLH]} Also reported to cause symptoms of nitrate poisoning in bovines and caprines. ^{[Acamovie PPRT]} Poultry Feed ^{[Khemani CP]}
Pesticide: Whole plant extract in water - Toxicity to M. incognita ^{[Singh APB]}
Soap
- "The crushed fresh roots are a mild soap substitute[106]." ^[PFAF]

Medicinal Uses

"Fat hen is not employed in herbal medicine, though it does have some gentle medicinal properties and is a very nutritious and healthy addition to the diet[268]." ^[PFAF]

Leaves
- "The leaves are anthelmintic, antiphlogistic, antirheumatic, mildly laxative, odontalgic[172, 222, 243, 268]. An infusion is taken in the treatment of rheumatism[257]. The leaves are applied as a wash or poultice to bug bites, sunstroke, rheumatic joints and swollen feet, whilst a decoction is used for carious teeth[218]." ^[PFAF] "Fresh leaves are cooked as vegetable and eaten raw to cure constipation and intestinal worms. Juice of fresh leaves is taken orally to treat jaundice and urinary disorders." ^{[Abbasi WEVLH]} "The Forest Potawatomi consider this a medicinal food which is used to cure or prevent scurvy. It has been used in exactly the same way by the white man according to Nickell.⁸⁷" ^{[HuronSmith Zuni]}
Seed
- "The seeds are chewed in the treatment of urinary problems and are considered useful for relieving the discharge of semen through the urine[272]." ^[PFAF] "The seeds being ‘hot’ are considered abortifacient. Powdered seeds are given to children to treat intestinal worms. Parched seeds are given during the chickenpox" ^{[Gupta HTNH]}
Juice
- "The juice of the stems is applied to freckles and sunburn[218]. The juice of the root is used in the treatment of bloody dysentery[272]." ^[PFAF]

Lambsquarters – Chenopodium album

Part:

Greens (Cooked)

Per 100 g fresh weight

Food Energy (Kcal)	32	Ash (g)	2.2	Potassium (mg)	-
Water (g)	89	Thiamine (mg)	-	Magnesium (mg)	-
Protein (g)	3.2	Riboflavin (mg)	0.75	Calcium (mg)	258
Fat (g)	0.7	Niacin (mg)	0.9	Phosphorus (mg)	45
Carbohydrate (g)	5	Vitamin C (mg)	37	Sodium (mg)	-
Crude Fiber (g)	1.8	Vitamin A (RE)	970	Iron (mg)	0.7
Zinc (mg)	-	Manganese (mg)	-	Copper (mg)	-

Lambsquarters – Chenopodium album

Part:

Greens

Per 100 g fresh weight

Food Energy (Kcal)	34	Ash (g)	2.3	Potassium (mg)	874
Water (g)	88	Thiamine (mg)	0.18	Magnesium (mg)	177
Protein (g)	3.3	Riboflavin (mg)	-	Calcium (mg)	309
Fat (g)	0.6	Niacin (mg)	1.4	Phosphorus (mg)	76
Carbohydrate (g)	5.7	Vitamin C (mg)	98.3	Sodium (mg)	-
Crude Fiber (g)	1.5	Vitamin A (RE)	1277	Iron (mg)	1.2
Zinc (mg)	0.7	Manganese (mg)	1.1	Copper (mg)	0.2

Lambsquarters – Chenopodium album [218] ^[PFAF]

Part:

Leaves

Per 100 g dryweight

Food Energy (Kcal)	260	Ash (g)	28	Potassium (mg)	-
Water (g)	0	Thiamine (mg)	0.67	Magnesium (mg)	-
Protein (g)	24	Riboflavin (mg)	1.58	Calcium (mg)	2300
Fat (g)	5	Niacin (mg)	2.5	Phosphorus (mg)	500
Carbohydrate (g)	45	Vitamin C (mg)	-	Sodium (mg)	-
Fiber (g)	15	Vitamin A (mg)	31583	Iron (mg)	25
Zinc (mg)	-	Manganese (mg)	-	Copper (mg)	-

Notes: The figures are the median of a range given in the report. [218] ^[PFAF]

"Fresh weight basis: Moisture contents 87.70 %, dry matter contents 12.30 %. Dry weight basis: Carbohydrates 7.680 %, crude proteins 54.90 %, crude fats 3.730 %, crude fibers 13.28 %, ash contents 20.42 %, Energy value 283.8 Kcal/100 g." ^{[Abbasi WEVLH]}

"Leaves of wild vegetables of South Africa namely Chenopodium album, Sonchus asper, Solanum nigrum and Urtica urens were found to have protein contents between 13.25 and 26.44%, fi bre content were 16.08-23.08% and mineral (ash) contents were 13.0-27.75%, (Afolayan and Jimoh 2008) . The total phenolic contents ranged between 4.58 and 10.53 mg/g.^{" [EMNMPV.6]}

Carotene Content of Raw and Cooked Leaf Vegetables Grown in Pakistan - Raw [ug (100g)^-1]: 3097, Cooked [ug (cooked wt)^-1] Fried=2619 Pressure=2988 Traditional=2498 ^{[Gross Pigments]}

"Spinacia oleracea has 8100 units of pro-vitamin A (beta carotene) for every 100 grams of leaves, but, for the same weight of material,... Chenopodium album (common goosefoot) has 14,000 units in its young shoots, Leucanthemum vulgare (ox-eye daisy) has 12,000 units in its early season basal leaves, Plantago major (common plaintain) has 10,000 units in its early season leaves, ...." ^{[Haines AP]}

Phytochemicals

Walker et al. (2004) reported lower Zn tissue concentration in Chenopodium album L. when plants were grown in soils amended with compost or manure; ^[Phytorem1] "Cu accumulator plant" ^{[Bini PHE]}

"The seed germination of Chenopodium album also shows a complicated dependance of germination on radiation (Karssen 1970) and is stimulated by nitrate ions (Henson 1970) which is advantageous, as the plant's growth itself is also furthered very much by nitrates and high concentrations of other anorganic ions (see Kinzel 1969)." ^{[Holzner BEW]}

"...water extract showed higher value of total phenolics contents (mg GAE/100 g, FW) than acetone extract. Flavonoid and flavonol contents were found higher in acetone extracts (mg Rt/100 g, FW) as compared to water extracts on fresh weight basis. Water extract showed slightly more concentration of ascorbic acid contents (mg AA/100 g, FW) than acetone extract on fresh weight basis." ^{[Abbasi WEVLH]}

"Accumulation of betacyanins in tissue culture of ... Chenopodium album ... has been studied by Japanese companies with the aim of introducing the production of these pigments on a commercial scale (Misawa et ale 1973; Komatsu et ale 1975)." ^{[Bajaj MAPS 2]}

24(28)-Dehydromakisterone A [4] ^{[Azimova Phyto]}
2-Dehydropoststerone [5] ^{[Azimova Phyto]}
20-Hydroxyecdysone [4, 6] ^{[Azimova Phyto]}
Polypodine B [4, 6] ^{[Azimova Phyto]}

Pharmacology

"The antioxidant properties in the leaves of C. album are given in Fig. 8.21, which indicates that water extract showed more DPPH scavenging activity than acetone extract" ^{[Abbasi WEVLH]}

"Useful in cold, general weakness and purgative. Its seeds contain whole set of essential amino acids. It has higher lysine content. Its leaves are good source of high-quality protein concentrate (Kumar and Kumar 2008)" ^{[Gupta HTNH]}

Cultivation

"Ruderals appear in high-productivity environments with high disturbance. Ruderal (from the same root as rubbish, indicating the wastelands or disturbed areas where they thrive) species have short lifespans and immediately devote their energy to producing the next generation of seeds. These are the colonizer species in the competitor–colonizer trade-off. Common weeds such as lambsquarters (Chenopodium album) are ruderals" ^{[Beck PELD]}

"An easily grown plant, succeeding in most soils but disliking shade[1, 200]. It prefers a moderately fertile soil[200]. Tolerates a pH in the range 4.5 to 8.3. In moderate amounts this plant is a good companion for potatoes, corn and cucurbits[20, 54]. The plant responds directly to the magnesium content of the soil so it can be used to indicate the presence of that element[114]. Fat hen is occasionally cultivated as a food crop[46], there is at least one named variety[183]. Called 'Magenta' in reference to the colour of its leaves, it is considered by some people to be the best tasting of all potherbs[183]" ^[PFAF]

"Chenopodium album exhibits an ‘average performance’ of a summer-annual weed in the Nordic countries. It is comparatively sensitive to herbicides used in different annual crops and has therefore decreased after 1950, but not nearly as much as, for instance, Sinapis arvensis." ^{[Hakansson WWM]}

"the ability of C. album to fix nitrogen by association with nitrogen-fixing bacteria in its roots seems interesting (Mukherjee et al. 1985)." ^{[Bajaj MAPS 10]}

"The perthotrophic fungal species Ascochyta caulina (P. Karst.) v.d. Aa and v. Kest., has been proposed as a mycoherbicide against Chenopodium album (Kempenaar, 1995), also known as common lambsquarter or fat hen, a common world-wide weed of many arable crops such as sugar beet and maize (Holm et al., 1977). The application of pycnidiospores of the fungus to C. album plants causes the appearance of large necrosis of leaves and stems and, depending on the amount of necrosis developed, plants show retarded growth or death." ^[BCNS]

Alleleopathy

"Govahi and Shajie (2005a) investigated the allelopathic effects of C. album water extracts on bean germination. Treatments used were: 0, 25, 50, 75, and 100 % of Chenopodium water extracts and results indicated that the effects of Chenopodium water extracts on germination percentage, radicle and plumule growth, and seedling dry weigh were significant. Increased water extracts of Chenopodium reduced characteristics of germination and seedling growth." ^{[Cheema Alleleopathy]}

"Wheat grown in the presence of a non-mycorrhizal weed, Chenopodium album, experienced lowered levels of mycorrhizal colonization, while maize experienced an increase in colonization (Stejskalova 1990)." ^{[Lichtfouse SAR 4]}

Control Measures

"Application of the biological control agent Ascochyta caulina to common lambsquarters (Chenopodium album) in sugarbeet and com resulted in a reduction of competition from the weed in the corn cropping system, but did not have a positive effect when applied in the sugar beet system. This example supports the idea that the successful development of bioherbicides can be enhanced if the crop characteristics are taken into account. While using the biological control agent alone may be a feasible approach for management of the weed in corn, a more integrated approach may need to be addressed if it is to be successful in sugarbeet production." ^{[Khachatourians AMB2]}

"A mixture of psyllium and PVA enhanced the efficacy of Ascochyta caulina on Chenopodium album." ^{[Khachatourians AMB2]}

Synonyms

C. reticulatum ^[PFAF]

References

[E-flora] Chenopodium album Klinkenberg, Brian. (Editor) 2013. E-Flora BC: Electronic Atlas of the Flora of British Columbia (eflora.bc.ca). Lab for Advanced Spatial Analysis, Department of Geography, University of British Columbia, Vancouver. https://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Chenopodium%20album&redblue=Both&lifeform=7 [Accessed: 6/13/2014 10:07:23 PM ]
[PFAF] https://pfaf.org/user/plant.aspx?LatinName=Chenopodium+album, Accessed March 28, 2021

Chenopodium berlandieri - pitseed goosefoot

Subtaxa Present in B.C.

Chenopodium berlandieri var. zschackei ^[E-flora]

"Chenopodium berlandieri is a ANNUAL growing to 1.2 m (4ft). It is in flower from July to October, and the seeds ripen from August to October. The species is hermaphrodite (has both male and female organs) and is pollinated by Wind. Suitable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It cannot grow in the shade. It prefers moist soil." ^[PFAF]

Status: Native ^[E-flora]

Hazards

Edible Uses

Plant
- "Leaves and young shoots - raw or cooked like spinach[85, 105, 106, 183]. The raw leaves should only be eaten in small quantities, see the notes above on toxicity." ^[PFAF]
- "Southwestern tribes including the Apache, Baja Californians, Cocopa, Mohave, Paiute, Pima, Tarahumara, Tipais, Tohono O’odham, and Yavapais ate the leaves and young shoots. The usual method was to boil and then fry them in grease (Curtin 1949, Ebeling 1987, Hodgson 2001). Rarely did these same people eat the leaves and young stems raw." ^{[Daniel F. Austin]}
Seeds
- "Seed - ground into a powder and used with cereal flours for making bread or gruel[85, 177, 183]. The seed should be soaked in water overnight and thoroughly rinsed before it is used in order to remove any saponins." ^[PFAF]
- "Chenopodium berlandieri was cultivated longer in the southwestern United States, and it is still cultivated in Mexico and South America (Smith 1992). Hodgson (2001) found that Cahuilla and Louiseño gathered Chenopodium seeds and ground them into flour. The River Pimas (Akimel O’odham) parched and ground the seeds, then ate the flour in pinole or combined it with other meal before it was eaten. They stopped growing kovi for food in the 1870s when the drought years hit (Rea 1997). The Yavapais collected the infructescences in burden baskets, spread them on a flat surface, and beat them with a stick to separate the seeds. Winnowed seeds were then parched with coals in a basket, ground, boiled, and eaten. The same pattern holds from California, Arizona, and New Mexico south into Mexico." ^{[Daniel F. Austin]}

Other Uses

Dye: "Gold/green dyes can be obtained from the whole plant[168]." ^[PFAF]

Cultivation & Propagation

"Chenopodium berlandieri... is unquestionably native in North America, and was cultivated by indigenous tribes well before Europeans arrived (Smith 1992)." ^{[Daniel F. Austin]}

"We have very little information on this species and do not know how well it will grow in Britain, but it should succeed as a spring sown annual. According to some botanists this species is no more than a synonym for C. album[235] whilst 'World Economic Plants' treats it as a distinct species and includes C. nuttalliae (which is dealt with here as a distinct species) as a sub-species. It is viewed as a distinct, but very similar, species in the Flora of North and Central Texas[274]. The following notes are based on the general needs of the genus. An easily grown plant, succeeding in most soils but disliking shade[1, 200]. It prefers a moderately fertile soil[200]." ^[PFAF]

"Seed - sow spring in situ. Most of the seed usually germinates within a few days of sowing." ^[PFAF]

Synonyms

Chenopodium berlandieri subsp. pseudopetiolare Aellen ^[E-flora]

References

[E-flora] Chenopodium berlandieri, https://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Chenopodium%20berlandieri&redblue=Both&lifeform=7 ,Klinkenberg, Brian. (Editor) 2013. E-Flora BC: Electronic Atlas of the Flora of British Columbia (eflora.bc.ca). Lab for Advanced Spatial Analysis, Department of Geography, University of British Columbia, Vancouver. Accessed: 6/13/2014; March 31, 2021
[PFAF] https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Chenopodium+berlandieri, Accessed March 31, 2021

Chenopodium capitatum - strawberry-blite

"Chenopodium capitatum is a ANNUAL growing to 0.6 m (2ft).
It is hardy to zone (UK) 5. It is in flower from July to August, and the seeds ripen from August to September. The species is hermaphrodite (has both male and female organs) and is pollinated by Wind.
Suitable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It cannot grow in the shade. It prefers moist soil." ^[PFAF]

"General: Annual herb from a stout taproot; stems erect, several, branched, 20-80 cm tall, glabrous." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}

"Leaves: Leaves alternate, greenish on both surfaces, 2-10 cm long, triangular, arrowhead-shaped at the base." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}

"Habitat / Range Mesic to dry disturbed areas and waste places in the lowland, steppe and montane zones; common throughout most of BC, rare W of the Coast-Cascade Mountains; N to AK, YT and NT, E to PQ and NS and S to PA, MN, NM and CA; also Eurasia; native status uncertain." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}

Origin Status: Native ^[E-flora]

Hazards

Edible Uses

Young Leaves "Leaves - raw or cooked[27, 106]. Used like spinach[2], they are a good source of vitamins C and A[257]. The young leaves are best[85, 172, 183]. Poor quality[74]. The raw leaves have been used in salad mixtures[257], but should only be eaten in small quantities, see the notes above on toxicity." ^[PFAF]
Fruit: "Fruit - raw or cooked[2, 27, 172]. An insipid but sweet flavour[85], they can be added to salads[183]. The fruit is about 12mm in diameter[200]. A red food colouring can be obtained from the fruit[74, 99, 172, 183]." ^[PFAF]
Seeds: "Seed - cooked. It can be ground into a meal and mixed with cereal flours in making bread etc[161, 172]. The seed is small and fiddly, it should be soaked in water overnight and thoroughly rinsed before it is used in order to remove any saponins." ^[PFAF]

Other Uses

Dye
- Gold/green dyes can be obtained from the whole plant[168]. A red dye is obtained from the fruit, it is used in cosmetics and as a paint[46, 257]." ^[PFAF]

Medicinal Uses

Plant
- "The plant has been used as a lotion for treating black eyes and head bruises[257]." ^[PFAF] "the whole plant is made into a medicinal “tea” to ease any congestion in the lungs." ^{[HuronSmith Zuni]}
Seeds
- "The juice of the seeds and an infusion of the plant has been used to treat lung congestion[257]." ^[PFAF] It is "rubbed on the breast to cure congestion of the lungs" ^{[HuronSmith Zuni]}

Synonyms

Blitum capitatum ^[E-flora]

References

[E-flora] Chenopodium capitatum, https://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Blitum%20capitatum&redblue=Both&lifeform=7, Klinkenberg, Brian. (Editor) 2013. E-Flora BC: Electronic Atlas of the Flora of British Columbia (eflora.bc.ca). Lab for Advanced Spatial Analysis, Department of Geography, University of British Columbia, Vancouver. Accessed: 6/13/2014; April 1, 2021
[PFAF] https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Chenopodium+capitatum, Accessed April 1, 2021

Chenopodium ficifolium - figleaf goosefoot

"Chenopodium ficifolium is a ANNUAL growing to 0.9 m (3ft).
It is hardy to zone (UK) 4. It is in flower from July to September, and the seeds ripen from August to October. The species is hermaphrodite (has both male and female organs) and is pollinated by Wind.
Suitable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It cannot grow in the shade. It prefers moist soil." ^[PFAF]

Status: Exotic ^[E-flora]

Hazards

"Methanol and ethanol crude extracts of Chenopodium ficifolium were harmful to beneficial insects (Quang et al. 2010 )." ^{[Singh APB]}

Edible Use

Plant
- "Leaves and flower buds - cooked[12, 105, 177]. Used like spinach or added to soups etc[183]. The raw leaves should only be eaten in small quantities, see the notes above on toxicity." ^[PFAF]
- "Flower buds eaten in soups, vegetable dishes, fried, roasted or parboiled and as potherb" ^[EMNMPV.7]
Seed: "Seed - roasted and used as a condiment[105]. Used like sesame for flavouring foods[183]." ^[PFAF]

Other Use

Dye: "Gold/green dyes can be obtained from the whole plant[168]." ^[PFAF]

Cultivation & Propagation

"An easily grown plant, succeeding in most soils but disliking shade[1, 200]. It prefers a moderately fertile soil[200]." ^[PFAF]

"Seed - sow spring in situ. Most of the seed usually germinates within a few days of sowing." ^[PFAF]

Synonyms

C. serotinum. non L. ^[PFAF]

References

[E-flora] https://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Chenopodium%20ficifolium&redblue=Both&lifeform=7, Accessed April 1, 2021
[PFAF] https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Chenopodium+ficifolium, Accessed April 1, 2021

Chenopodium rubrum - Red goosefoot

"Chenopodium rubrum is a ANNUAL growing to 0.6 m (2ft). It is in flower from July to October, and the seeds ripen from August to October. The species is hermaphrodite (has both male and female organs) and is pollinated by Wind.
Suitable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It cannot grow in the shade. It prefers moist soil." ^[PFAF]

Hazards

Edible Uses

Seeds
- "Seed - ground into a powder and used with cereal flours to make bread, cakes etc[105, 161, 177, 183]. The seed is small and fiddly, it should be soaked in water overnight and thoroughly rinsed before it is used in order to remove any saponins." ^[PFAF]
Leaves
- "Leaves - raw or cooked as a spinach[12, 46, 61, 74, 105, 177, 183]. The raw leaves should only be eaten in small quantities, see the notes above on toxicity." ^[PFAF]

Other Uses

Dye
- Gold/green dyes can be obtained from the whole plant[168]." ^[PFAF]

Cultivation & Propagation

"An easily grown plant, succeeding in most soils but disliking shade[1, 200]. it prefers a moderately fertile soil[200]." ^[PFAF]

"Seed - sow spring in situ. Most of the seed usually germinates within a few days of sowing." ^[PFAF]

Synonyms

Chenopodium rubrum var. humile (Hook.) S. Watson ^[E-flora]

References

[E-flora] https://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Chenopodium%20rubrum&redblue=Both&lifeform=7, Accessed April 1, 2021
[PFAF] https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Chenopodium+rubrum, Accessed April 1, 2021

Chenopodium simplex - Maple-leaved goosefoot

"Chenopodium simplex is a ANNUAL growing to 1.2 m (4ft). It is in flower from July to October, and the seeds ripen from August to October. The species is hermaphrodite (has both male and female organs) and is pollinated by Wind.
Suitable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It cannot grow in the shade. It prefers moist soil." ^[PFAF]

"General: Annual herb from a taproot; stems erect, solitary to numerous, simple to freely branched, 0.2-1.5 m tall, glabrous except glandular in the inflorescence." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}

"Leaves: Stem leaves alternate, broadly deltoid to egg-shaped, 5-20 cm long, shallow to prominently toothed or lobed, glabrous." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}

"Habitat / Range Moist to dry forests and disturbed areas in the montane zone; infrequent in SC and SE BC, rare northward to Dawson Creek; introduced from Eurasia." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}

Status: Native " ^[E-flora]

Hazards

Edible Uses

Leaves
- "Leaves - cooked and used like spinach[85]. The raw leaves should only be eaten in small quantities, see the notes above on toxicity. Seed - cooked[85]. Ground into a powder and used with wheat or other cereals in making bread etc. The seed is small and fiddly, it should be soaked in water overnight and thoroughly rinsed before it is used in order to remove any saponins." ^[PFAF]

Other Uses

Dye
- "Gold/green dyes can be obtained from the whole plant[168]." ^[PFAF]

Cultivation & Propagation

"We have very little information on this species and do not know how well it will grow in Britain, but it should succeed as a spring sown annual. It is part of C. hybridum according to some botanists[60], whilst others afford it specific status and say it is closely related to C. hybridum[270]. The following notes are based on the general needs of the genus. An easily grown plant, succeeding in most soils but disliking shade[1, 200]. It prefers a moderately fertile soil[200]." ^[PFAF]

"Seed - sow spring in situ. Most of the seed usually germinates within a few days of sowing." ^[PFAF]

Synonyms

Chenopodium gigantospermum Aellen - Synonym 2/3 confidence ^{[ThePlantList]}
C. hybridum gigantospermum. Rouleau. ^[PFAF]
Chenopodiastrum simplex ^[E-flora]

References

[E-flora] https://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Chenopodiastrum%20simplex&redblue=Both&lifeform=7, Accessed April 1, 2021
[PFAF] https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Chenopodium+simplex, Accessed April 1, 2021
[ThePlantList] Chenopodium simplex, http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/kew-2717795, Accessed April 1, 2021

Uses of Other Chenopodium Sp.

"The genus Chenopodium consists of more than 250 species, mostly "weeds", which grow on all continents. In plant systematics it is closely related to the genus Amaranthus (Sherma and Day 1967). They share some morphological characters (e.g. the curved embryo), and also the synthesis of beta cyanin (instead of anthocyan). Sometimes the two genera are combined under a practical aspect as pseudo-cereals, in view of their millenarian use in the neotropical mountain region, before the Eurasian cereals arrived. Three Chenopodium have been cultivated: C. pallidicaule and C. quinoa in South America and C. nuttaliae in Mexico" ^{[Brucher UPNO]}

"All of the species are more or less edible, although the one listed above [C. fremontii] is the best . The leaves may be cooked as greens.... the small black seeds can be eaten raw ; they are best when salted, mixed with corn meal, and made into mush or cakes." ^{[Kirk WEP]}

"Analysis of foliage of ten species of Chenopodium at the National Botanical Research Institute (NBRI), Lucknow, revealed a wide range of variation for protein (26–64 g/kg), carotene (78–190 mg/kg), vitamin C (0.5–2.4 g/kg), nitrate (2.6–5.0 g/kg) and oxalate (9–39 g/kg) [13]." ^{[Khemani CP]}

Seeds

"Seeds of several species of Chenopodiums, especially C. leptophyllum and C. Fremontii, were gathered by the Indians and parched or ground into meal and used for cakes or gruel." ^[EWP] "The Mojave in southern California and the ancient Incas of South America sowed and cultivated the edible seeds of a pigweed in the genus Chenopodium" ^{[Anderson TTW]}
"All samples contained between 11–13 % moisture and 2–3 % ash. The protein content ranged from 2.5 to 3.5 g/100 g with highest content (3.5 g/100 g) in C. qunoa seeds followed by C. album A (3.3 g/100 g). Reducing sugar in all the four varieties ranges between 1.2 to 2.1 %. Among the C. album samples, seeds of sample A (sample from wheat fields) contain highest percentage of reducing sugar (1.6 %) which is equal to the reducing sugar content of C. album C seeds. The total sugar value in C. album and C. quinoa ranges between 2.1 to 4.7 %. Among all the album samples, C. album A (growing wild in wheat fields) contained highest amount (3.7 %) of total sugar and sample B contained lowest amount (2.1 %) of total sugar. Lipid content as estimated gravimetrically was found to be higher in C. album as compared to the seeds of C. quinoa. Lipid content of different seed samples varied from 3.5–5.8 %." ^{[Khemani CP]}
"Mean value for the mineral content of nutritional importance is presented in Table 1. The species analyzed in the study showed remarkably high K content. The K content varied greatly and ranged from 381.4 mg/100 g (C. album B, cultivated) to 550.8 mg/100 g (C. album from wheat fields). Mn content in all the seeds was nearly equal ranging from 0.8 to 1.8 mg/100 g in three varieties but it is below detection limit in the seeds of C. album B. However, the mineral content in C. quinoa was found to be high but it is quite comparable with the mineral content of C. album." ^{[Khemani CP]}
"The values of protein in C. album seeds in present study are lower than the values of protein in leaves (3.69 %) as reported by [14]. Protein content of C. quinoa seeds was estimated to be 3.5 %. Earlier reported literature [3] shows high content of protein in quinoa seeds (12–19 %). The lower values in the present study are probably because the seeds used in the present study were commercially obtained and are debittered seeds in which the protein seed coat was removed. The seeds of C. album contain 3.5–5.8 g/100 g of total lipid. The lipid content ranges between the values reported by [3] (6–8 %) whereas in fresh leaves of C. album total lipid is reported as 0.6 g/100 g by [4]. Ahamed (1998) reported the value of reducing sugar to be 2–3 % in the seed of C. quinoa which is found low with the present study." ^{[Khemani CP]}

Soap: "The first unidentified species is chopped up finely and spread on the face and arms to keep the flies and mosquitoes from biting one. "It is just like soap when crushed up," or so one of my informants states." ^{[Elmore EON]}

Acaricide Additive: "Thymol blended with the oils of Chenopodium and fir showed the highest bioactivity against Varroa mite." ^{[Singh APB]}

Chenopodium acuminatum

Heavy Metal Accumulator:
- Cd. Soil Concentration = 11.2mg/kg. Metal Content of Plants = shoots: 8.5mg/kg ; roots:2.6 mg/kg (Cui et al., 2007) ^{[Golubev HP]}
- Cu. Soil Concentration = 376.4mg/kg. Metal Content of Plants = shoots: 28.1mg/kg; roots:27.7 mg/kg (Cui et al., 2007) ^{[Golubev HP]}
- Pb. Soil Concentration = 1004.3mg/kg. Metal Content of Plants = shoots: 97.9mg/kg; roots:101.9 mg/kg (Cui et al., 2007) ^{[Golubev HP]}
- Zn. Soil Concentration = 900mg/kg. Metal Content of Plants = shoots: 154.9mg/kg; roots:104.7 mg/kg (Cui et al., 2007) ^{[Golubev HP]}

Chenopodium ambrosioides - Wormseed/Mexican tea

Synonyms: "Chenopodium ambrosioides L; C. ambrosioides var. anthelminticum (L.) A. Gray; C. anthelminticum L." synonym of Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin & Clemants ^{[Duke MPLA]} 2/3 confidence ^{[ThePlantList]}
Distribution: "It is widely distributed in West Africa especially in Nigeria, Senegal, Ghana, and Cameroon [34]." ^{[Kuete TSAMP]}
"Characteristics: The whole plant gives off a pleasant fragrance. The oil is dangerously explosive." ^[PDR]
Hazards: "Cases of death have been observed following intake of 10 mg of the oil by adults, and much less for children. For that reason, an administration in allopathic dosages is to be avoided." ^[PDR] "Even the administration of therapeutic dosages can lead to disorders of the central nervous system, including spasms, signs of paralysis, Pachymeningitis haemorrhagica. Damage to the Nervus cochlearis is frequent, leading to buzzing in the ears and hearing impairment (sometimes lasting for years)." ^[PDR] Emmenagogue and abortifacient effects ^{[Capasso PQR]} "Most essential oils and components have an LD50 of 1–20 g/kg body weight or roughly 1–20 mL/kg, with a few exceptions as follows: Boldo leaf oil 0.1/0.9 (oral/dermal); Calamus 0.8–9/5; Chenopodium 0.2/0.4; Pennyroyal 0.4/4; and Thuja 0.8/4." ^{[CRC HEO]} "...caution should be taken when using this plant in any chronic treatment" ^{[Kuete TSAMP]}
- Signs & Symptoms of Overdose: "Abdominal pain, dizziness, flushing, headache, nausea, salivation (start several hours after ingestion), tinnitus, vomiting; followed by ataxia, coma, deafness, drowsiness, and in some cases progresses to tachycardia, seizures, and death" ^[PTH] "Respiratory depression is seen with large ingestions and pulmonary edema is a common finding in fatal cases. Renal damage (hematuria and albuminuria) and hepatitis. Mucous membrane irritant, CNS depressant or CNS stimulant. CNS depression may be rapid (30 minutes) or delayed (up to 4 hours) and may continue for up to 3 days; chemical pneumonitis and pulmonary edema are possible" ^[PTH]"...kidney and liver damage, temporary deafness, and circulatory collapse, among others. Effects may be cumulative." ^{[Leung ECNI]}
- "Overdose can cause convulsions, dizziness, headache, vomiting, even death (PNC). The herbal Physicians Desk Reference cites cases of death … following intake of 10 mg of the oil (much less for children) (PHR). Even therapeutic dosages can cause CNS disturbances (pachymeningitis haemorrhagica, signs of paralysis, spasms). Damaged nervus cochlearis may lead to tinnitus and hearing impairment (lasting for years) (PHR). Contact allergen (FAD). Foster suffered vertigo after harvest (FAD). Though alleged to prevent gas, wormseed oil is said to be explosive (PHR). Reading the warnings tempted me to score this XXX for safety, but I have used it many times as a precarminative in bean soup. And it is suggested that traditional usage of whole herb as a vermifuge is safer than the EO or synthetic or pure ascaridole (JE92:215)." ^{[Duke MPLA]}

"Absorption: Well absorbed through mucous membranes" ^[PTH]
"Metabolism: By the liver" ^[PTH]
"Elimination: Excreted primarily through kidney" ^[PTH]
Poison: "the Catawba in South Carolina concocted poison from ... Chenopodium ambrosioides ( Jerusalem Oak)" ^{[David E. Jones]}
Reactive: "Due to its high ascaridole (a peroxide) content, chenopodium oil may explode when heated or treated with acids and should be handled with caution." ^{[Leung ECNI]}

Food Use "Though often listed as an edible potherb, as an anti-gas spice in soups and salsas, or used in preparation of hot pepper sauces, etc., I’d use very sparingly!" ^{[Duke MPLA]} "The leaves and seeds of C. ambrosioides are used in Mexican cooking as a carminative flavoring with bean dishes" ^{[Leung ECNI]} A mexican dish, Esquites, are "tender corn kernels boiled with Chenopodium ambrosoides leaves". ^{[Lira EM]}
Herb
- "Parts Used Dried herb, cleaned from stems." ^{[Moore MPPW]}
- "Preparation Standard Infusion, 2 to 3 fluid ounces, up to three times a day, no more than one day at a time." ^{[Moore MPPW]} "Topically applied in hemorrhoids (SOU). 1 g (HHB); 2–4 ml liquid extract (PNC); 0.03–0.1 g fresh shoots/kg/day, no more than 3 days; not more often than once every 6 months (TRA); 1–4 g powdered seed (PNC); 4 tsp powdered seed at bedtime, for 4 days, as anthelmintic (NPM) (much too much for safety (JAD)). Adult dosage: 20 drops in a.m. on empty stomach followed by purgative in 2 hr (PH2); pediatric dose: 1 drop for each year of age, repeat in 1 hr (PH2)." ^{[Duke MPLA]}
- "Herb Uses The tea for suppressed, crampy menses; as a spice for bean dishes, dark chile powders." ^{[Moore MPPW]}
- Bath: "Brazilian curanderos use it as an ingredient in the ritual baths that form part of healing ceremonies (P V A Williams). It must grow in Africa, too, for the leaves are one of the ingredients used in the steambath used to treat sickness ascribed to the effect of evil spirits (Koritschoner). To prevent nightmares, Amazonian peoples like the Ka’apor bathe their heads with the leaves (Balée)." ^{[DPL Watts]}

"Comments A purported abortifacient, it seldom works and is dangerous. The use of the seeds for roundworms can be effective; such a use is not a trivial matter, and it is necessary to take great care." ^{[Moore MPPW]}
"Afro-Brazilian Candomblé take leaf juice or tea for hysteria and internal pain (VOD)." ^{[Duke MPLA]}
"Belizeans boil root of 1 large plant 10 min in 2 cups water for hangover (“crudo”) (AAB)." ^{[Duke MPLA]}
"Belizeans take hot leaf tea as sedative (AAB)." ^{[Duke MPLA]}
"Cubans use as anthelmintic, antispasmodic, hemostat, stomachic, and vermifuge, for colic and stomachache (JTR)." ^{[Duke MPLA]}
"Haitians rub the shoot onto the skin to kill parasites (VOD)." ^{[Duke MPLA]}
"Haitians use the shoot infusion as a digestive and stomachic (VOD)." ^{[Duke MPLA]}
"Madre de Dios Peruvians wash wounds with paico and tobacco tea (MD2)." ^{[Duke MPLA]}
"Mexicans infuse 20 g leaves in a 1 liter water as diuretic, emmenagogue, sudorific, and vermifuge (JFM)." ^{[Duke MPLA]}
"Nepalese suggest ca. 4 tsp seed for 4 days for worms (NPM)." ^{[Duke MPLA]}
"New Mexican Latinas take leaves with salt as abortifacient or for postpartum pain (JFM)." ^{[Duke MPLA]}
"Nigerians paste leaves and seeds in palm oil on guinea worm (WO2)." ^{[Duke MPLA]}
"Peruvians apply the leaves topically to arthritis (EGG)." ^{[Duke MPLA]}
"Peruvians suggest the leaf tea for acid stomach, diabetes, dysmenorrhea, gas, hemorrhoids, and rheumatism (EGG)." ^{[Duke MPLA]} "A tea made from the leaves has been employed medicinally to treat digestive disorders." ^{[Middleditch KP]}
"Peruvians take decoction for colds, colic, gastrosis, urethrosis, and worms (EGG; MD2; SOU)." ^{[Duke MPLA]}
"Tikuna take root/shoot decoction during menopause each month as contraceptive (SAR)." ^{[Duke MPLA]} "It has also been used for fertility control in Uruguay"^{[Middleditch KP]}
"Venezuelans bathe with plant decoction to reduce fever (JFM)." ^{[Duke MPLA]}
"Yucatanese use the plant for asthma, catarrh, chorea, and other neuroses (JFM)." ^{[Duke MPLA]}
Leaves in water used in Nigeria for "Analgesic, purgative and vermifuge, cancers, and cancer-related problems". ^{[Kuete TSAMP]}

Essential Oil
- "American wormseed (Chenopodium ambrosioides L. var. anthelminticum) has a long history of use by North American Indians, who used it to dispel worms and parasites from the intestine. (They take the herb orally.) Sometimes called Jerusalem oak, the seeds from this plant produce an essential oil that has been used for hundreds of years that appears to be safe enough for children (Erichsen- Brown 1979). Grieve (1931) found this variety of Chenopodium an effective remedy for hookworm and roundworm, and it was listed in the official American Pharmacopoeia. However, there is often confusion between the herbs Chenopodium ambrosioides L. var. anthelminticum and Chenopodium botrys L., which contains a much higher percentage of ascaridole and can cause fatalities." ^{[Buckle CA]}
- "The essential oils of ...wormseed (Chenopodium ambrosioides)... have been tested as penetration enhancers in vivo. Such a kind of activity in volatile oils is mainly due to the presence of various terpenes and terpenoids.37" ^[HPIC] "This contains bicyclic monoterpene peroxides such as 1,4-epidioxy- p-menth-2-ene (ascaridole) and 3,6-epidioxy-p-menth-1-ene, which explode upon heating (100 ^oC). Oil of chenopodium, also known as the oil of American wormseed, was used as antihelmintic; however, as overdoses have caused intoxications, synthetic antihelmintics are preferred nowadays in human medicine." ^{[Breitmaier Terpenes]}
- Fragrance: "Major use is as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents, creams, lotions, and perfumes, with maximum use level of 0.4% reportedly used in perfumes." ^{[Leung ECNI]}
- Veterinary Aid: "The oil of Ocimum basilicum has been reported as an expectorant in animals. The combined oils of Ocimum micranthum and Chenopodium ambrosioides is claimed to treat stomach ache and colic in animals" ^{[CRC HEO]}
- Chemicals: "Ascaridiole (chief constituent - up to 80%): including, according to variety and breed, p-cymene, L-pinocarvone, alpha-pinenes and/or alpha-terpenes, limonene. The combination creates a volatile, explosive oil." ^[PDR] "The main constituent (65–70%) is ascaridol, a monoterpene with peroxide-bound oxygen, which is chemically stable. Ascaridol is an active anthelmintic against ancylostomiasis and ascariasis." ^{[Sandberg NR]}
  - - p- Cymene (cymol); Contact insecticide vs. S. zeamais and B. germanica ^{[Singh APB]}
  - Hexadecane; Contact insecticide vs. T. castaneum , S. granaries ^{[Singh APB]}
  - "Contains variable amounts of ascaridole (17–90%, usually 60–80%), l-limonene, myrcene, p-cymene,a-terpinene, saturated hydrocarbons (C₂₁ to C₃₁ with C₂₉ predominant), triacontyl alcohol, a-spinasterol, and others" ^{[Leung ECNI]}
- Source: "Chenopodii aetheroleum This essential oil is obtained by steam distillation of the aerial parts of Chenopodium ambrosoides L., var. anthelminticum A.Gray; family Chenopodiaceae." ^{[Sandberg NR] "}Wormseed Oil is the seed oil of Chenopodium ambrosioides." ^[PDR]
Other Phytochemicals
- "20-Hydroxyecdysone [6]"^{[Azimova Phyto]}
- Ascaridole: From seed oil - "A terpene peroxide with a pungent smell and taste" ^{[BEOC, Sousa]} Chenopodium ambrosioides L. 185–18,000 ppm in the leaf (DUKE1992)^{[Duke MPLA]}
- Chinese Major Constituents: "Volatile oil, ascaridol, geraniol, saponin, 1-limonene, p-cymene, d-camphor.60" ^[CRNAH]
- North American Major Constituents: "Ascaridole, saponins, myrcene, geraniol.99,100,107" ^[CRNAH]
Activities:
- Nematicidal activity - Aqueous leaf extract (Toxicity to larvae of M. incognita), Root and shoot extract in water (Toxicity to T. brassicae, H. indica and R. reniformis), Whole plant extract (Potential nematicide to control plant nematodes) ^{[Singh APB]} "Wormseed Oil acts as an anthelmintic that causes flight and defensive reactions in worms. This is due to the main constituent of the terpene fraction, which is ascaridole, a monoterpene. This constituent is highly toxic." ^[PDR] "widely used to expel intestinal worms" ^{[Daniel F. Austin]} "Ascaridole, the active principle of the oil, has anthelmintic properties, particularly against roundworms (Ascaris); it is also effective against hookworms and dwarf tapeworms but not large tapeworms." ^{[Leung ECNI]}
- Parasiticide: "Leishmania amazonensis, a protozoon that causes cutaneous diseases, is susceptible to essential oils such as ... chenopodium (Chenopodium ambrosioides L.) oil ...." ^{[Houghton EHMP]}
- Antifungal: "Of the essential oils, ... wormseed oil (Chenopodium ambrosioides) was the most effective at inhibiting mildew growth (Rakotonirainy and Lavédrine, 2005)." ^{[Kozlowski HNF]} "Leaf EO antiaflatoxigenic against Aspergillus flavus, completely inhibiting mycelial growth at 100 μg/ml, while also exhibiting a broad fungitoxic spectrum against Aspergillus fumigatus, A. niger, Botryodiplodia theobromae, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Fusarium oxysporum, Helminthosporium oryzae, Macrophomina phaseolina, Pythium debaryanum, and Sclerotium rolfsii, at 100 μg/ml, and strong antioxidant activity" ^{[Duke MPLA]}
- Antitumor "Hydroalcoholic leaf extract exhibited potent antitumor activity even in small doses and also within two days of tumor implantation (X16307762)" ^{[Duke MPLA]}
- Chinese Therapeutic Value: "An anthelmintic to treat ascarids, ancylostomiasis, vermifuge, carminative." ^[CRNAH]
- North American Therapeutic Value: Anthelmintic. ^[CRNAH]
- Plant disease management: Aspergillus flavus - Essential oil from the leaf of Ocimum/Chenopodium ambrosioides ^{[Singh APB]}
- "Chu et al. ( 2011 ) have reported fumigant activity of Chenopodium ambrosioides L. against Sitophilus zeamais and further report five compounds ((Z)-ascaridole, 2-carene,rhocymene, isoascaridole and alpha- terpinene) of which (Z)-ascaridole recorded a LD₅₀ against S. zeamais adults of 0.84 mg L -1 air with contact toxicity of 0.86 μg g −1 body. This species is easily propagated and as the active compounds are volatile (ascaridole) despite their being toxic should be easily evaporated from commodities and therefore pose little risk to consumers. However, applicators may need to take care." ^{[Singh APB]}
- Acetone extract of aerial parts is active against Multidrug-resistant M. tuberculosis H37 Rv strain at 0.1 mg mL–1.^[ModPhyt]
- Pesticide:
  - Aqueous leaf extract - Toxicity to larvae of M. incognita ^{[Singh APB]}
  - Root and shoot extract in water - Toxicity to T. brassicae, H. indica and R. reniformis ^{[Singh APB]}
  - Whole plant extract - Potential nematicide to control plant nematodes ^{[Singh APB]}
  - "... essential oil from Chenopodium ambrosioides was shown to be effective at controlling fungus gnats, Bradysia coprophila, on ornamental plants (Cloyd and Chiasson, 2007)." ^{[Bailey BP]}
  - "An important exception to these EPA-exempt products is RequiemR, the first EPA-registered insecticide based on a plant essential oil. This product, containing an extract from a variety of wormwood (Dysphania [=Chenopodium] ambrosioides nr. ambrrosioides) was first registered in 2011 by AgraQuest but is currently marketed by Bayer CropScience. It was approved for use by the European Commission in 2015." ^{[Jeliazkov MAC]}
"Unproven Uses: Although considered obsolete as a drug, Wormseed Oil is used against roundworms and hookworms, if other, more modern anthelmintic drugs fail. The leaves and seeds have long been used in South American medicine as a vermifuge, stimulant, anti-asthmatic and abortifacient for cramps, paralysis and asthmatic complaints." ^[PDR]
"Chinese Medicine: The Chinese have used Wormseed Oil for rheumatism of the joints, metrorrhagia, eczema and bites." ^[PDR] "In China, the fresh root is used to treat articular rheumatism." ^{[Leung ECNI]}
Lore: "Another interesting medicinal plant is paico or Mexican tea (Chenopodium ambrosioides), which Monardes mentioned as helpful in treating stomach aches (dolor de ijada). Interestingly, Mexican tea can still be found in many Spanish home gardens, especially in western Spain where its infusion has been commonly drunk for treating digestive disorders" ^{[Svanberg EE]}
Dose: "In clinically described cases, which are exceptional, it can be used in combination with a fast-acting and powerful purgative." ^[PDR]
- "Daily Dosage: Typical adult daily dosage is 20 drops taken in the morning on an empty stomach. Two hours later, a purgative is taken. Pediatric dosage is two single doses of drops taken one hour apart. Each dose has one drop per year of the child's age." ^[PDR]
- "SEEDS. As Vermifuge: take laxative in evening, fast twelve hours the following day, take 2 grams of seeds [3 or 4 #00 capsules] with a soothing tea, such as Althea or Ulmus, wait 2 hours, follow with a full dose of Castor Oil. HERB: As Emmenagogue: Standard Infusion, 2-3 ounces." ^{[Moore(1995)]}

Chenopodium bonus-henricus L. - Young flower buds are cooked ^[EMNMPV.7]"Before the introduction of spinach, the broad, succulent leaves were much used as a potherb" "The young shoots have been used as a substitute for asparagus. This potherb should be prepared, cooked, and served the same as spinach." ^[EWP] "This plant is perfectly edible, and has been used as a food plant since Neolithic times (Mabey. 1972), and was actually cultivated in gardens right into the 19th century (C P Johnson). Evelyn said the tops could be eaten as “sparagus”, but “‘tis insipid enough”. One of the many names given to it is Blite (Prior), or Bleets, as Tusser had it, from a word meaning ‘insipid’, justifying Evelyn’s comment." ^{[DPL Watts]}

Edible Use: "young plants, leaves cooked after snow melting; plant included in “pistic” blend." ^[ETWP] "It is in the same family as spinach and somewhat resembles it in form and taste. The British eat the shoots in spring, calling them Lincolnshire asparagus. They also cook the young leaves like spinach; they are too bitter to eat raw. The flower buds taste remarkably Like broccoli. The seeds are also edible-in fact, the Europeans once cultivated His Majesty as a grain crop." ^{[Jacke EFG]} "The young leaves are rich in iron, calcium, and vitamins B1 and C, and can be added to salads. Treat mature leaves like spinach. Steam the flowers and eat like asparagus. Ground seeds can be used as flour, or made into a tea, which can have a mild laxative effect." ^{[Mcvicar GH]}
Medicinal Use: "It has its medicinal virtues – in Gloucestershire, an infusion of the fresh leaves was drunk for bladder troubles; and ground up in water, it was a cure for scurvy (Porter. 1974). Gerard advised his readers that the leaves “bruised and layd upon green wounds or foule and old ulcers, doe scoure, mundifie and heale them”. In other words, poultices made of the leaves cleansed and healed chronic sores." ^{[DPL Watts]}
Phytochemicals: 20-Hydroxyecdysone [6, 7]; Polypodine B [6, 7] ^{[Azimova Phyto]}
Cultivation: "Undemanding and hardy, but prefers good soils, sunny to partial shade, frost hardy, wild vegetable" ^{[Holzer Perm]} "This shade tolerant multipurpose perennial vegetable is good, but breeding could improve it further..." ^{[Jacke EFG]}
Propagation: "Sow seeds in early spring, under cover at 65^oF (18^oC); germination takes 14–20 days. Alternatively, sow seeds in late spring, when the air temperature at night does not fall below 45^oF (7^oC), sowing seeds into prepared open ground, in 1/2 in (1 cm) drills, leaving 18 in (45 cm) between rows, and covering the seed with 1/4 in (6 mm) soil; germination takes two to three weeks. Thin seedlings to 12 in (30 cm) apart. In spring, divide established plants of perennial species only. Replant into a prepared site fed with well-rotted manure." ^{[Mcvicar GH]}

Chenopodium botrys

Medicinal Use: "This is a vermifuge (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk) – see, for example, the prescription from Alabama: for worms, one teaspoonful of the seed or the stalk tea mixed with syrup, three times a day (R B Browne). There is, too, a remedy, using the inner bark of this plant, boiled and mixed with molasses to make a candy. It also seems to have been used in some way for tuberculosis (R B Browne)." ^{[DPL Watts]}
Sesquiterpene Esters
- 11-Acetoxy-1a,5a(H)-guai- 10(14)-en-4a-ol (11-Acetoxycis- guaia-10(14)-en-4-ol) ^{[Azimova NSE]}
- 4a-Acetoxy-5a,7a(H)- eudesmane-6a,11-diol (Pygmol-4-monoacetate) ^{[Azimova NSE]}
- 6a-Acetoxy-5a,7a(H)- eudesm-4(15)-en-11-ol (b- Chenopodiol-6-monoacetate) ^{[Azimova NSE]}
- 6a-Acetoxy-11-hydroxy-5a,7a (H)-eudesm-3-en-2-one (a- Chenopodiol-2-one-6- monoacetate) ^{[Azimova NSE]}

Chenopodium californicum

"The roots of C. californicum make excellent soap when used fresh or dried and ground to a powder." ^{[Kirk WEP]}

Chenopodium cornutum (Torr.) Benth. and Hook.f. ex Watson - Flowers eaten in Arizona ^[EMNMPV.7]

Chenopodium fremontii

Food Use: "The seeds are black and small like mustard seeds and are used in much the same manner as corn (Zea mays). They are ground to make tortillas, bread, and almost everything for which corn is used. They were used long before flour came into use. Glucose is obtained by parching handfuls of the seed meal (24:209)." ^{[Elmore EON]}

Chenopodium graveolens

Sesquiterpene Esters
- 8a-Acetoxy-5a(H)- eudesmane-4a,11-diol ((+)- 8a-Acetoxy-cryptomeridiol) ^{[Azimova NSE]}

Chenopodium murale

"Traditional Medicine. Employed as a wash to treat skin infections. Used for eruptions on the head." ^{[Middleditch KP]}
Fodder: "The plant is grazed by camels, goats, and sheep." ^{[Middleditch KP]}
Phytochemistry: "A substance with antiviral activity against tobacco mosaic virus has been isolated from the leaves (Chirkina and Degtyareva, 1972). This plant contains the bioflavonoid quercetin (Bahrman et al., 1985). A classical pharmacognostic screen of the whole plant indicated the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, and saponins, but not tannins (Aynehchi et al., 1982)." ^{[Middleditch KP]}
Pharmacology: Disaccharides: "Apiofuranosyl(1->4)rhamnose has been recorded from Chenopodium murale¹⁹⁸ in combination with kaempferol at the 3-position and with rhamnose at the 7-hydroxyl." ^{[Andersen FCBA]} Flavonol Glycosides: 3-Xylosyl(1->4)rhamnoside-7-rhamnoside & 3-Apiosyl(1->4)rhamnoside-7-rhamnoside = Chenopodium murale whole plant ^{[Andersen FCBA]}
"... allelopathic potential of C. murale plays significant role in its wide geographic distribution by inhibiting the growth of some target species." ^{[Cheema Alleleopathy]}

Chenopodium nuttalliae Saff. = & Chenopodium quinoa Willd. - "Flower clusters eaten cooked, used like broccoli; they are considered a gourmet food" ^[EMNMPV.7]

"At present C. nuttaliae is still sown in the states of Michoacan, Oaxaca and Tamaulipas, but over a continuously declining area. It seems that it is less used for grains, but more as a vegetable (a spinach-like herb called "quelite" with edible flower clusters). The main area is situated between 1200 and 3000 m altitude. The cv. Chia is still used as a grain crop." ^{[Brucher UPNO]}

Chenopodium pallidicaule

"Cañahua ( Chenopodium pallidicaule ) is a remarkably nutritious grain of the high Andes area that is cultivated in small plots in Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru and grows well at altitudes of up to 4400 m in the extreme highland environment where wheat, rye, nor corn cannot grow and where even quinoa cannot yield well at the altitudes where cañahua grows.... This Andean grain is perhaps the strongest crop due to its resistance to frost, drought, salt, and pests. At the time of the Conquest, cañahua grain was an important food in the high Andes. Nowadays, it is cultivated in the Peruvian and Bolivian Andean plateau, consumed by local population and bought in Andean markets." ^{[Kristbergsson FPTF]}

"It must be considered as only a minor grain crop for marginal regions of the High Andes, producing at least some yield even at the 4500-m altitude of the Puna. Regular planting occurs in 3300-4000 m, where in well-worked soils kanigua may yield 2000 kg/ha. There are precocious strains which ripen in 95 days, whilst others need 150 days for ripening. Unfortunately, the seeds shed freely, when the plants dry off (contrary to C. quinoa , which retains the seeds)." ^{[Brucher UPNO]}
"As scarcely developed and primitive cultivars, kanigua plants do not all mature at the same time, so the harvest extends in the Altiplano from March to May. Plants must be pulled out before seeds have completely matured, to avoid major shattering. All this is laborious work for these long-enduring natives, who live at the very limit of human survival. The resulting minute seeds are dried in the sun and used as roasted "pito" or cooked in porridge. Even the remaining plant residues, after threshing, have their importance in the Altiplano. After burning, it produces an alkaline-rich ash that is in great demand among the native chewers of coca. If they use coca together with this "llipta", the stimulating effect is maximal. Gade (1970), who studied the ethnobotany of C. pallidicaule, declares about this rare Andine foodplant: "Perhaps no other crop is so resistant to the combination of frost, drought, salty soil and pests, or requires such little care in its cultivation. At the same time, few grains have as high a protein content as does canihua (13.8%) ... "." ^{[Brucher UPNO]}
"Of all cultivated plants in the valley, kaiiiwa requires the least amount of heat for successful growth. Planted in the months of November, December and January, it matures within 120 days. It is threshed like quinoa, with a stick, and the seeds are used in much the same way as quinoa (GADE, 1970d). Kaiiiwa has an even higher protein content (WHITE, 1955:532) than does quinoa, but less calcium. This may explain the preference for quinoa ashes as the accompanying lime for coca chewing." ^{[Gade PMLP]}
Traditional Use: "Cañahua was used as food by Andean people before the Spanish conquest (Gade 1970 ), and nowadays it is used in Bolivia and Peru mainly as cañihuaco or pito , which is the toasted and milled grain. This toasted flour is mixed with sugar, milk, water, or fruit juice for breakfast. Local people take it on their long travels because of its high caloric and protein value. Some varieties of cañahua expand when toasted and can be included in sweets and snacks. Cañahua can also be used in soups and baby food mixtures." ^{[Kristbergsson FPTF]}
Potential and Other Use: "Breads made from blends of up to 25 % of cañahua flour gave acceptable sensory scores." ^{[Kristbergsson FPTF]} "The greater the level of cañahua contents, the higher the cooking loss values. Low cooking loss is a desirable property of good quality pasta and a commonly used predictor of spaghetti cooking performance (Tudorica et al. 2002 ). Values lower than 80 g/kg are considered acceptable for good quality pasta (Dick and Youngs 1988 ); so, pasta of up to 30 % substitution level can be considered of acceptable quality." ^{[Kristbergsson FPTF]}
Nutritional Information
- "Although Cañahua produces a cereal-like seed , it is not a true cereal, its grains are very small but their protein and lipid content are higher than wheat. However, different ecotypes present a wide range of protein and lipid content. Comparing four Bolivian ecotypes the total protein values varied from 12 to 17.5 % and lipids from 9.9 to 11.7 % (Ramos et al. 2007 ). In ecotypes from Peru, the protein content varied from 13.3 to 18.3 % (Repo-Carrasco et al. 2010 )." ^{[Kristbergsson FPTF]}
- Proteins: "The importance of cañahua proteins is more related to quality than quantity. Regarding solubility, cañahua proteins can be classifi ed as albumin, globulin, prolamin, and glutelin, according to Osborne extraction procedure. Approximately 40–50 % of total cañahua proteins are mainly soluble in water and saline solution, albumin and globulin; however, insoluble proteins can reach approximately 45–50 % (Repo- Carrasco 1998 ; Ramos et al. 2007 ). Insignificant amounts of protein are present in the prolamin fraction. Cañahua does not contain gluten, so it can be eaten by people who have celiac disease as well as by those who are allergic to wheat. The percentage of protein distribution according to solubility showed significant variations in different ecotypes (Table 9.2 ). The content of essential amino acids, especially lysine, is higher in soluble proteins than in insoluble proteins." ^{[Kristbergsson FPTF]}
- "In terms of essential amino acid, the ratio of essential to total amino acid (E/TN) in kañiwa protein isolates was higher than 0.44 in two ecotypes, which had higher value than the minimum E/TN ratio (0.36) suggested by FAO/WHO/UNU (WHO, 1985 ) thus cañahua protein could be considered as a high quality of natural protein" ^{[Kristbergsson FPTF]}
- Carbohydrates: "Among carbohydrates, polysaccharides, such as starch, and simple sugars (glucose, fructose, sucrose, and maltose) are present in cañahua grain. Like cereals, starch is the most abundant carbohydrate in cañahua, although it contains more simple sugars than cereals (Ahamed et al. 1998 )." ^{[Kristbergsson FPTF]}
- Starch: "According to their thermal properties, cañahua starch has good potential as food ingredient for food exposed to heat treatment at high temperature and mechanical stirring." ^{[Kristbergsson FPTF]}
- Dietary Fiber: "Cañahua has higher dietary fiber content than common cereals, such as wheat, rye, and barley. Nyman et al. ( 1984 ) reported a total dietary fiber content of 12.1 %, 16.1 %, and 18.8 % for wheat, rye, and barley, respectively. Cañahua presents approximately 25 % of total dietary fiber, although most of it corresponds to insoluble fiber, and only 3 % is soluble fiber (Repo-Carrasco et al. 2009 ). According to this study, cañahua cannot be considered a good source of betaglucans because the content of this compound is very low (0.04–0.07 %). The lignin content ranges from 6.8 to 8.0 % depending on the ecotype (Repo-Carrasco et al. 2009 ). This content is relatively high compared to other cereals: 2.0 %, 2.1 %, 3.5 %, 2.5 %, 3.9 %, and 1.4 %, for wheat, rye, barley, sorghum, rice, and corn, respectively (Nyman et al. 1984 )." ^{[Kristbergsson FPTF]}
- Lipids: "Cañahua grain is especially rich in lipids. Different ecotypes can contain from 7 to 11 % (Repo-Carrasco et al. 2010 ; Ramos et al. 2007 ; Steffolani et al. 2013 ); for this reason, cañahua is a potential source of oil.... Cañahua oil presents a 1.47 refraction index and approximately 73 % content of unsaturated acids, where 42 % corresponds to linoleic acid (omega 6), 25 % to oleic acid (omega 9), and 6 % to linolenic acid (omega 3). Cañahua oil has 788 and 721 ppm of y and a tocopherol, respectively, which is higher than corn oil content (Repo-Carrasco et al. 2003 ). Tocopherols are components of E vitamin with a potent antioxidant activity that improve oil quality and oil conservation; besides, high contents of tocopherols increase the nutritional value of cañahua." ^{[Kristbergsson FPTF]}
- Minerals: "Andean crops are rich in minerals. Cañahua contains more Zn, Ca, and Fe than rice..., but during the boiling process iron and zinc content significantly decrease (Repo-Carrasco et al. 2010 ). The roasting process does not modify mineral content.... Repo-Carrasco et al. ( 2010 ) reported that in cañahua boiling increased the dialyzability of minerals (Zn, Ca, and Fe) although this process decreased the total content of Zn and Fe." ^{[Kristbergsson FPTF]}
- Bioactive Compounds: "The total content of polyphenolic compound of cañahua was about 2.5 mg GAE/g (Repo-Carrasco et al. 2009 ), this content is higher than in oat (Gorinstein et al. 2007 ), buckwheat, quinoa, and rice (Pasko et al. 2009 ). In addition, flavonoid content determined for cañahua was exceptionally high, varying from 46.2 to 144.3 mg/100 g. Berries have been considered excellent sources of flavonols, but their level in flavonoid-rich berries is 5–10 times lower than in cañahua seeds. When compared on a dry weight basis, flavonoid contents in berries and cañahua are of the same magnitude. Cañahua seeds have excellent potential as sources of health promoting bioactive compounds." ^{[Kristbergsson FPTF]}
Phytochemicals
- 20,26-Dihydroxyecdysone (Podecdysone C) [8]; 20-Hydroxyecdysone [8] ^{[Azimova Phyto]}

Chenopodium petiolare

Food Use: "Chenopodium petiolare and Brassica campestris, are highly valued as human food, particularly the very young leaves." consumed boiled ^{[Gade PMLP]}

Chenopodium polyspermum

Phytochemicals
- 20-Hydroxyecdysone [6] ^{[Azimova Phyto]}

Chenopodium quinoa

Hazards
- Saponin: "The cuticle surrounding the seed contains saponin and this must be washed away before the seed is palatable." ^{[Gade PMLP]} "The seed coat may be thin in selected cvs., like Blanca real, or thick and dark as in the primitive form keitu, with high content of saponin. This glucoside produces a bitter taste and is the main obstacle to more general use of quinoa. It is interesting that in Peru a region exists (between Ayaviri and Sicuani) where natives maintain old landraces with surprisingly low-grade saponin and white testa. A Bolivian Experimental Station has selected a seemingly saponin- free variety called Sayama. Seeds are very nutritious, with 13 % protein on average, but may reach 22 % in exceptional cases (Wilson 1980); 58 % starch and 4% fat, and a small amount (3%) of sugar. Nutrition experiments concluded that quinoa albumen compares favourably to that of milk."^{[Brucher UPNO]}
Food Use

"After they have been thoroughly washed, the seeds are made into a mush, prepared by first toasting and then boiling them. Often sugar is added. As late as the mid-nineteenth century..., quinoa mush (api) was important in the diet of Cuzco town dwellers and rural folk alike. Another way to prepare quinoa was to grind the seeds and to make them into a dough which was allowed to harden into a cookie. ...a common food taken on journeys because it would last several months without spoiling." ^{[Gade PMLP]}
"Quinoa chicha was formerly made, but now it is prepared in the valley only for certain ceremonial occasions..." ^{[Gade PMLP]}

Other Use
- "stalks are macerated, dried, and burned; the ashes are then collected and formed into a ball, the size of a golf ball, a bit of which is chewed with coca leaves to extract the alkaloid in the leaf" ^{[Gade PMLP]}
- Fuel: "The stalk is also valued as a fuel which produces a quick, hot fire in an area where fuel of any kind is scarce." ^{[Gade PMLP]}
Nutritional Info

"C. quinoa produces a huge leaf mass which has been analyzed as follows: 52 % carbohydrate, 22 % raw protein and 15 % ash. Natives have long used it as good animal feed, but also here the high saponin percentage is a nuisance, which could be overcome by the selection of saponin-free mutants, which are, of course, genetically recessive and would become supressed in open pollinated quinoa fields. Polyploidy breeding appears promising in view of the fact that the genus has a tendency to genome multiplication, e.g. octoploid spontaneous biotypes of C. album exist in Eurasia." ^{[Brucher UPNO]}
"...quinoa grains have a high concentration of essential amino acids, with a lysine content twice that of wheat grains." ^{[Brucher UPNO]}

Phytochemicals
- 20-Hydroxyecdysone [9]; Kancollosterone [9] ^{[Azimova Phyto]}
Morphology
- "C. quinoa has an extremely plastic habit, which changes according to the environmental factors. We must keep this in mind when describing this species. In poor soils and at high altitude, plants flower and set fruits when only a few centimeters tall, whilst in humid lowland and fertilized soils the same cultivar may reach 250 cm and have profuse seed production" ^{[Brucher UPNO]}
Cultivation
- "Quinoa is sown broadcast in the months of September, October or November. When the plants reach a height of 6-10 centimeters, they are already extremely resistant to drought, so moisture is critical only during the germination stage. Few pests bother quinoa and farmers give little attention to weeding it. The crop is harvested 150-180 days after sowing. The stalks are often pulled out of the ground by hand rather than cut at the base with a sickle. One apparent reason for the survival of this pre-Conquest harvesting method is that, unlike most grains, quinoa seed shatters readily when ripe, and pulling jars the stalk less than cutting it. By extirpating the whole plant, nothing remains in the field to provide organic matter to the soil. The stalks and panicles are dried in the sun for several days... before being threshed by flailing sticks ; rarely if ever is quinoa threshed by animal hooves in the valley." ^{[Gade PMLP]}
- "Physiological changes caused by herbicides in the potential host plant can create conditions where AM thrives (Nasr 1993). One study that brings this clearly into focus is the mycorrhization of a “non-host” plant, Chenopodium quinoa (Schwab et al. 1982), where simazine herbicide applied in sublethal doses led to an increase in root exudation, thought to be responsible for the formation of AM (Ellouze et al. 2008)." ^{[Lichtfouse BBA]}

"Chenopodium schraderanum Schult. (Chenopodiaceae). goosefoot. Th e Samburu of Kenya used the smoke of burning sticks to drive bees away when collecting their honey (Heine and König 1988a)." ^[UAPDS]

Chenopodium trigonum

Phytochemicals
- 20-Hydroxyecdysone [3] ^{[Azimova Phyto]}

Chenopodium ugandae

Leaves used in Rwanda for "Skin disease and leprosy" ^{[Kuete TSAMP]}

Chenopodium urbicum

"The Upright or City Goosefoot, Chenopodium urbicum, and one or two other species of this genus are also used as a substitute for spinach." ^[EWP]

"The red berries of Chenopodium virgatum (L.) Aschers have been employed in cosmetics." ^{[Middleditch KP]}

"Chenopodium vulneraria L. is the source of a yellow dye." ^{[Middleditch KP]}

Chenopodium vulvaria - Arrach

"Characteristics: Arrach has a distinctive unpleasant smell of musty herring brine." ^[PDR] "when handled it smells like rotting fish. That unpleasant smell is trimethylamine (like hawthorn), and there is also ammonia in the smell (Genders. 1971)." ^{[DPL Watts]}
Food Use: "Nevertheless, they can be cooked and eaten, like spinach." ^{[DPL Watts]}
"Medicinal Parts: The whole fresh, flowering plant has medicinal properties." ^[PDR] "Hill described it as “an excellent medicine in all hysteric complaints”, and there were similar recommendations from all the older herbalists. Indeed, it was even supposed at one time to cure infertility. Just by the smell of it! (Grieve. 1931)." ^{[DPL Watts]} "... has been employed medicinally to treat nervous disorders." ^{[Middleditch KP]}
"Unproven Uses: Arrach is used internally and externally to relieve cramps and as an emmenagogue." ^[PDR]
"Mode of Administration: Arrach is used externally and as an extract." ^[PDR]
Phytochemicals
- "Mono-, di- and trimethylamine : only in the fresh plant due to their volatility" ^[PDR]
- Betaine ^[PDR]
- Tannins ^[PDR]
"Activities (Arrach) — Antispasmodic (f; EFS); Depurative (f; EFS); Emmenagogue (f; EFS; HHB; PH2); Nervine (f; EFS); Vermifuge (f; EFS)." ^{[HMH Duke]}

Other Information

Fodder: "(many species) is also loved by poultry." ^{[Mollison P2]}

Halophyte

"Not only glands but also bladder hairs can remove salts from salt-sensitive metabolic sites. Some halophytes like Atriplex or Chenopodium have vesiculated trichomes on the leaf surface which release the salt back into the environment when they are ruptured." ^{[Pessarakli HPCS]}

"The potential capacity of halophytes Chenopodium album and Apocynum lancifolium, has been evaluated for its ability to remove of chloride, sodium, magnesium and calcium ions from the salt-affected soils of Uzbekistan (Hamidov et al. 2007). The authors observed that Chenopodium album was most effective in removing chloride ions (104.5 mg g-1 dry biomass), and sodium (33.6 mg g-1 dry biomass)." ^{[Ozturk PPT]}

"Kefu et al. ( 1995 ) reported utilization of halophytes in China as source of starch and protein (species of Zostera, Chenopodium, Atriplex )" ^{[Dagar AMW]}

Chenopodium quinoa; "The salinity tolerance mechanism in a salt-tolerant dicotyledonous C3 halophyte plant quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) involves protection of its photosynthetic machinery against oxidative stress in developing leaves due to accumulation of organic osmolytes (Shabala et al., 2012)." ^{[Pessarakli HPCP]}

Phytostabilization: Stabilization of contaminants by binding/complexation - Soil, sediments, sludges - Inorganic-metals (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Zn) ^{[Dhir PRAPECU]}

Aphid Host Plant: "Chenopodium spp. Aphis sp. (Eritrea, BMNH colln); Brachycaudus helichrysi; [Hyalomyzus raoi]; Neomyzus circumflexus; Rhopalosiphoninus staphyleae ssp. tulipaellus; [Semiaphis dauci]; [Thecabius affinis]" ^{[Blackman AWHPS]}

Cultivation & Propagation

"The Paiute sowed the seeds of Mentzelia and Chenopodium plants on burned-over ground." ^{[Anderson TTW]}

"Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa or Canihua, C. pallidicauda): Grown in S. America ar high altitudes (Peru, Argentina), C.quinoa ripens in 135-145 days, Canihua in 165-172 days. Tolerant of soils and salts. Spring-sown at lo-15 kg/ha (9-13% lb/acre). Birds a problem. Plants are pulled when seed resists finger pressure. Pile in stacks to dry. Good varieties (1000 varieties available), yield 2000-3000 kg/ha ( 1800-2700 lb/acre)" ^{[Mollison P2]}

Journals of Interest

Dwivedi, A. D. and Gopal, K. 2010. Biosynthesis of silver and gold nanoparticles using Chenopodium album leaf extract. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects 369: 27–33.
Eapen S, Suseelan KN, Tivarekar S, Kotwal SA, Mitra R (2003) Potential for rhizofiltration of uranium using hairy root cultures of Brassica juncea and Chenopodium amaranticolor. Environ Res 91(2):127–133
Gade D (1970) Ethnobotany of Chenopodium pallidicaule, a rustic seed crop of the Altiplano. Econ Botany 24:55-61
Gee, J.M., Price, K.R., Ridout, C.L., Wortley, G.M., Hurrell, R.F. and Johnson, I.T. (1993) Saponins of Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa): Effects of processing on their abundance in quinoa products and their biological effects on intestinal mucosa tissue. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 63, 201-209.
Heiser CB, Nelson DC (1974) On the origin of the cultivated chenopods (Chenopodium). Genetics 78: 503 - 505
Kumar, D., & Kumar, S. (2008). Phytochemical investigation and antioxidant activity of Chenopodium album. International Journal of Plant Sciences, 3(1), 166–167.
Prasad, C. S.; Shukla, R.; Kumar, A.; Dubey, N. K. In vitro and invivo antifungal activity of essential oils of Cymbopogon martini and Chenopodium ambrosioides and their synergism against dermatophytes. Mycoses. 2010, 53, 123–129.
Smith, B. D. 1984. Chenopodium as a Prehistoric Domesticate in Eastern North America: Evidence from Russell Cave, Alabama. Science 226: 165–67.
Trivellato Grassi L, Malheiros A, Meyre-Silva C, Buss Zda S, Monguilhott ED, Fröde TS, da Silva KA, Souza MM (2013) From popular use to pharmacological validation: a study of the antiinflammatory, anti-nociceptive and healing effects of Chenopodium ambrosioides extract. J Ethnopharmacol 145(1):127–138
Wilson HD, Heiser CBJ. The origin and evolutionary relationships of “huauzontle” (Chenopodium nutalliae Safford), domesticated chenopod of Mexico. Am J Bot. 1979;76(2):198–206.

References

[ThePlantList] The Plant List (2013). Version 1.1. Published on the Internet; http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/kew-2717029 (accessed April 9, 2021).

Page last modified on Tuesday, April 20, 2021 6:48 AM